Why prefer composition over inheritance? What trade-offs are there for each approach? When should you choose inheritance over composition?
Prefer composition over inheritance as it is more malleable / easy to modify later, but do not use a compose-always approach. With composition, it's easy to change behavior on the fly with Dependency Injection / Setters. Inheritance is more rigid as most languages do not allow you to derive from more than one type. So the goose is more or less cooked once you derive from TypeA.
My acid test for the above is:
Does TypeB want to expose the complete interface (all public methods no less) of TypeA such that TypeB can be used where TypeA is expected? Indicates Inheritance.
e.g. A Cessna biplane will expose the complete interface of an airplane, if not more. So that makes it fit to derive from Airplane.
Does TypeB want only some/part of the behavior exposed by TypeA? Indicates need for Composition.
e.g. A Bird may need only the fly behavior of an Airplane. In this case, it makes sense to extract it out as an interface / class / both and make it a member of both classes.
Update: Just came back to my answer and it seems now that it is incomplete without a specific mention of Barbara Liskov's Liskov Substitution Principle as a test for 'Should I be inheriting from this type?'
Think of containment as a has a relationship. A car "has an" engine, a person "has a" name, etc.
Think of inheritance as an is a relationship. A car "is a" vehicle, a person "is a" mammal, etc.
I take no credit for this approach. I took it straight from the Second Edition of Code Complete by Steve McConnell, Section 6.3.
If you understand the difference, it's easier to explain.
Procedural Code
An example of this is PHP without the use of classes (particularly before PHP5). All logic is encoded in a set of functions. You may include other files containing helper functions and so on and conduct your business logic by passing data around in functions. This can be very hard to manage as the application grows. PHP5 tries to remedy this by offering a more object-oriented design.
Inheritance
This encourages the use of classes. Inheritance is one of the three tenets of OO design (inheritance, polymorphism, encapsulation).
class Person {
String Title;
String Name;
Int Age
}
class Employee : Person {
Int Salary;
String Title;
}
This is inheritance at work. The Employee "is a" Person or inherits from Person. All inheritance relationships are "is-a" relationships. Employee also shadows the Title property from Person, meaning Employee.Title will return the Title for the Employee and not the Person.
Composition
Composition is favoured over inheritance. To put it very simply you would have:
class Person {
String Title;
String Name;
Int Age;
public Person(String title, String name, String age) {
this.Title = title;
this.Name = name;
this.Age = age;
}
}
class Employee {
Int Salary;
private Person person;
public Employee(Person p, Int salary) {
this.person = p;
this.Salary = salary;
}
}
Person johnny = new Person ("Mr.", "John", 25);
Employee john = new Employee (johnny, 50000);
Composition is typically "has a" or "uses a" relationship. Here the Employee class has a Person. It does not inherit from Person but instead gets the Person object passed to it, which is why it "has a" Person.
Composition over Inheritance
Now say you want to create a Manager type so you end up with:
class Manager : Person, Employee {
...
}
This example will work fine, however, what if Person and Employee both declared Title? Should Manager.Title return "Manager of Operations" or "Mr."? Under composition this ambiguity is better handled:
Class Manager {
public string Title;
public Manager(Person p, Employee e)
{
this.Title = e.Title;
}
}
The Manager object is composed of an Employee and a Person. The Title behaviour is taken from Employee. This explicit composition removes ambiguity among other things and you'll encounter fewer bugs.
With all the undeniable benefits provided by inheritance, here's some of its disadvantages.
Disadvantages of Inheritance:
You can't change the implementation inherited from super classes at runtime (obviously because inheritance is defined at compile time).
Inheritance exposes a subclass to details of its parent class implementation, that's why it's often said that inheritance breaks encapsulation (in a sense that you really need to focus on interfaces only not implementation, so reusing by sub classing is not always preferred).
The tight coupling provided by inheritance makes the implementation of a subclass very bound up with the implementation of a super class that any change in the parent implementation will force the sub class to change.
Excessive reusing by sub-classing can make the inheritance stack very deep and very confusing too.
On the other hand Object composition is defined at runtime through objects acquiring references to other objects. In such a case these objects will never be able to reach each-other's protected data (no encapsulation break) and will be forced to respect each other's interface. And in this case also, implementation dependencies will be a lot less than in case of inheritance.
Another, very pragmatic reason, to prefer composition over inheritance has to do with your domain model, and mapping it to a relational database. It's really hard to map inheritance to the SQL model (you end up with all sorts of hacky workarounds, like creating columns that aren't always used, using views, etc). Some ORMLs try to deal with this, but it always gets complicated quickly. Composition can be easily modeled through a foreign-key relationship between two tables, but inheritance is much harder.
While in short words I would agree with "Prefer composition over inheritance", very often for me it sounds like "prefer potatoes over coca-cola". There are places for inheritance and places for composition. You need to understand difference, then this question will disappear. What it really means for me is "if you are going to use inheritance - think again, chances are you need composition".
You should prefer potatoes over coca cola when you want to eat, and coca cola over potatoes when you want to drink.
Creating a subclass should mean more than just a convenient way to call superclass methods. You should use inheritance when subclass "is-a" super class both structurally and functionally, when it can be used as superclass and you are going to use that. If it is not the case - it is not inheritance, but something else. Composition is when your objects consists of another, or has some relationship to them.
So for me it looks like if someone does not know if he needs inheritance or composition, the real problem is that he does not know if he want to drink or to eat. Think about your problem domain more, understand it better.
Didn't find a satisfactory answer here, so I wrote a new one.
To understand why "prefer composition over inheritance", we need first get back the assumption omitted in this shortened idiom.
There are two benefits of inheritance: subtyping and subclassing
Subtyping means conforming to a type (interface) signature, i.e. a set of APIs, and one can override part of the signature to achieve subtyping polymorphism.
Subclassing means implicit reuse of method implementations.
With the two benefits comes two different purposes for doing inheritance: subtyping oriented and code reuse oriented.
If code reuse is the sole purpose, subclassing may give one more than what he needs, i.e. some public methods of the parent class don't make much sense for the child class. In this case, instead of favoring composition over inheritance, composition is demanded. This is also where the "is-a" vs. "has-a" notion comes from.
So only when subtyping is purposed, i.e. to use the new class later in a polymorphic manner, do we face the problem of choosing inheritance or composition. This is the assumption that gets omitted in the shortened idiom under discussion.
To subtype is to conform to a type signature, this means composition has always to expose no less amount of APIs of the type. Now the trade offs kick in:
Inheritance provides straightforward code reuse if not overridden, while composition has to re-code every API, even if it's just a simple job of delegation.
Inheritance provides straightforward open recursion via the internal polymorphic site this, i.e. invoking overriding method (or even type) in another member function, either public or private (though discouraged). Open recursion can be simulated via composition, but it requires extra effort and may not always viable(?). This answer to a duplicated question talks something similar.
Inheritance exposes protected members. This breaks encapsulation of the parent class, and if used by subclass, another dependency between the child and its parent is introduced.
Composition has the befit of inversion of control, and its dependency can be injected dynamically, as is shown in decorator pattern and proxy pattern.
Composition has the benefit of combinator-oriented programming, i.e. working in a way like the composite pattern.
Composition immediately follows programming to an interface.
Composition has the benefit of easy multiple inheritance.
With the above trade offs in mind, we hence prefer composition over inheritance. Yet for tightly related classes, i.e. when implicit code reuse really make benefits, or the magic power of open recursion is desired, inheritance shall be the choice.
Inheritance is pretty enticing especially coming from procedural-land and it often looks deceptively elegant. I mean all I need to do is add this one bit of functionality to some other class, right? Well, one of the problems is that inheritance is probably the worst form of coupling you can have
Your base class breaks encapsulation by exposing implementation details to subclasses in the form of protected members. This makes your system rigid and fragile. The more tragic flaw however is the new subclass brings with it all the baggage and opinion of the inheritance chain.
The article, Inheritance is Evil: The Epic Fail of the DataAnnotationsModelBinder, walks through an example of this in C#. It shows the use of inheritance when composition should have been used and how it could be refactored.
When can you use composition?
You can always use composition. In some cases, inheritance is also possible and may lead to a more powerful and/or intuitive API, but composition is always an option.
When can you use inheritance?
It is often said that if "a bar is a foo", then the class Bar can inherit the class Foo. Unfortunately, this test alone is not reliable, use the following instead:
a bar is a foo, AND
bars can do everything that foos can do.
The first test ensures that all getters of Foo make sense in Bar (= shared properties), while the second test makes sure that all setters of Foo make sense in Bar (= shared functionality).
Example: Dog/Animal
A dog is an animal AND dogs can do everything that animals can do (such as breathing, moving, etc.). Therefore, the class Dog can inherit the class Animal.
Counter-example: Circle/Ellipse
A circle is an ellipse BUT circles can't do everything that ellipses can do. For example, circles can't stretch, while ellipses can. Therefore, the class Circle cannot inherit the class Ellipse.
This is called the Circle-Ellipse problem, which isn't really a problem, but more an indication that "a bar is a foo" isn't a reliable test by itself. In particular, this example highlights that derived classes should extend the functionality of base classes, never restrict it. Otherwise, the base class couldn't be used polymorphically. Adding the test "bars can do everything that foos can do" ensures that polymorphic use is possible, and is equivalent to the Liskov Substitution Principle:
Functions that use pointers or references to base classes must be able to use objects of derived classes without knowing it
When should you use inheritance?
Even if you can use inheritance doesn't mean you should: using composition is always an option. Inheritance is a powerful tool allowing implicit code reuse and dynamic dispatch, but it does come with a few disadvantages, which is why composition is often preferred. The trade-offs between inheritance and composition aren't obvious, and in my opinion are best explained in lcn's answer.
As a rule of thumb, I tend to choose inheritance over composition when polymorphic use is expected to be very common, in which case the power of dynamic dispatch can lead to a much more readable and elegant API. For example, having a polymorphic class Widget in GUI frameworks, or a polymorphic class Node in XML libraries allows to have an API which is much more readable and intuitive to use than what you would have with a solution purely based on composition.
In Java or C#, an object cannot change its type once it has been instantiated.
So, if your object need to appear as a different object or behave differently depending on an object state or conditions, then use Composition: Refer to State and Strategy Design Patterns.
If the object need to be of the same type, then use Inheritance or implement interfaces.
Personally I learned to always prefer composition over inheritance. There is no programmatic problem you can solve with inheritance which you cannot solve with composition; though you may have to use Interfaces(Java) or Protocols(Obj-C) in some cases. Since C++ doesn't know any such thing, you'll have to use abstract base classes, which means you cannot get entirely rid of inheritance in C++.
Composition is often more logical, it provides better abstraction, better encapsulation, better code reuse (especially in very large projects) and is less likely to break anything at a distance just because you made an isolated change anywhere in your code. It also makes it easier to uphold the "Single Responsibility Principle", which is often summarized as "There should never be more than one reason for a class to change.", and it means that every class exists for a specific purpose and it should only have methods that are directly related to its purpose. Also having a very shallow inheritance tree makes it much easier to keep the overview even when your project starts to get really large. Many people think that inheritance represents our real world pretty well, but that isn't the truth. The real world uses much more composition than inheritance. Pretty much every real world object you can hold in your hand has been composed out of other, smaller real world objects.
There are downsides of composition, though. If you skip inheritance altogether and only focus on composition, you will notice that you often have to write a couple of extra code lines that weren't necessary if you had used inheritance. You are also sometimes forced to repeat yourself and this violates the DRY Principle (DRY = Don't Repeat Yourself). Also composition often requires delegation, and a method is just calling another method of another object with no other code surrounding this call. Such "double method calls" (which may easily extend to triple or quadruple method calls and even farther than that) have much worse performance than inheritance, where you simply inherit a method of your parent. Calling an inherited method may be equally fast as calling a non-inherited one, or it may be slightly slower, but is usually still faster than two consecutive method calls.
You may have noticed that most OO languages don't allow multiple inheritance. While there are a couple of cases where multiple inheritance can really buy you something, but those are rather exceptions than the rule. Whenever you run into a situation where you think "multiple inheritance would be a really cool feature to solve this problem", you are usually at a point where you should re-think inheritance altogether, since even it may require a couple of extra code lines, a solution based on composition will usually turn out to be much more elegant, flexible and future proof.
Inheritance is really a cool feature, but I'm afraid it has been overused the last couple of years. People treated inheritance as the one hammer that can nail it all, regardless if it was actually a nail, a screw, or maybe a something completely different.
My general rule of thumb: Before using inheritance, consider if composition makes more sense.
Reason: Subclassing usually means more complexity and connectedness, i.e. harder to change, maintain, and scale without making mistakes.
A much more complete and concrete answer from Tim Boudreau of Sun:
Common problems to the use of inheritance as I see it are:
Innocent acts can have unexpected results - The classic example of this is calls to overridable methods from the superclass
constructor, before the subclasses instance fields have been
initialized. In a perfect world, nobody would ever do that. This is
not a perfect world.
It offers perverse temptations for subclassers to make assumptions about order of method calls and such - such assumptions tend not to
be stable if the superclass may evolve over time. See also my toaster
and coffee pot analogy.
Classes get heavier - you don't necessarily know what work your superclass is doing in its constructor, or how much memory it's going
to use. So constructing some innocent would-be lightweight object can
be far more expensive than you think, and this may change over time if
the superclass evolves
It encourages an explosion of subclasses. Classloading costs time, more classes costs memory. This may be a non-issue until you're
dealing with an app on the scale of NetBeans, but there, we had real
issues with, for example, menus being slow because the first display
of a menu triggered massive class loading. We fixed this by moving to
more declarative syntax and other techniques, but that cost time to
fix as well.
It makes it harder to change things later - if you've made a class public, swapping the superclass is going to break subclasses -
it's a choice which, once you've made the code public, you're married
to. So if you're not altering the real functionality to your
superclass, you get much more freedom to change things later if you
use, rather than extend the thing you need. Take, for example,
subclassing JPanel - this is usually wrong; and if the subclass is
public somewhere, you never get a chance to revisit that decision. If
it's accessed as JComponent getThePanel() , you can still do it (hint:
expose models for the components within as your API).
Object hierarchies don't scale (or making them scale later is much harder than planning ahead) - this is the classic "too many layers"
problem. I'll go into this below, and how the AskTheOracle pattern can
solve it (though it may offend OOP purists).
...
My take on what to do, if you do allow for inheritance, which you may
take with a grain of salt is:
Expose no fields, ever, except constants
Methods shall be either abstract or final
Call no methods from the superclass constructor
...
all of this applies less to small projects than large ones, and less
to private classes than public ones
Inheritance is very powerful, but you can't force it (see: the circle-ellipse problem). If you really can't be completely sure of a true "is-a" subtype relationship, then it's best to go with composition.
Inheritance creates a strong relationship between a subclass and super class; subclass must be aware of super class'es implementation details. Creating the super class is much harder, when you have to think about how it can be extended. You have to document class invariants carefully, and state what other methods overridable methods use internally.
Inheritance is sometimes useful, if the hierarchy really represents a is-a-relationship. It relates to Open-Closed Principle, which states that classes should be closed for modification but open to extension. That way you can have polymorphism; to have a generic method that deals with super type and its methods, but via dynamic dispatch the method of subclass is invoked. This is flexible, and helps to create indirection, which is essential in software (to know less about implementation details).
Inheritance is easily overused, though, and creates additional complexity, with hard dependencies between classes. Also understanding what happens during execution of a program gets pretty hard due to layers and dynamic selection of method calls.
I would suggest using composing as the default. It is more modular, and gives the benefit of late binding (you can change the component dynamically). Also it's easier to test the things separately. And if you need to use a method from a class, you are not forced to be of certain form (Liskov Substitution Principle).
Suppose an aircraft has only two parts: an engine and wings.
Then there are two ways to design an aircraft class.
Class Aircraft extends Engine{
var wings;
}
Now your aircraft can start with having fixed wings
and change them to rotary wings on the fly. It's essentially
an engine with wings. But what if I wanted to change
the engine on the fly as well?
Either the base class Engine exposes a mutator to change its
properties, or I redesign Aircraft as:
Class Aircraft {
var wings;
var engine;
}
Now, I can replace my engine on the fly as well.
If you want the canonical, textbook answer people have been giving since the rise of OOP (which you see many people giving in these answers), then apply the following rule: "if you have an is-a relationship, use inheritance. If you have a has-a relationship, use composition".
This is the traditional advice, and if that satisfies you, you can stop reading here and go on your merry way. For everyone else...
is-a/has-a comparisons have problems
For example:
A square is-a rectangle, but if your rectangle class has setWidth()/setHeight() methods, then there's no reasonable way to make a Square inherit from Rectangle without breaking Liskov's substitution principle.
An is-a relationship can often be rephrased to sound like a has-a relationship. For example, an employee is-a person, but a person also has-an employment status of "employed".
is-a relationships can lead to nasty multiple inheritance hierarchies if you're not careful. After all, there's no rule in English that states that an object is exactly one thing.
People are quick to pass this "rule" around, but has anyone ever tried to back it up, or explain why it's a good heuristic to follow? Sure, it fits nicely into the idea that OOP is supposed to model the real world, but that's not in-and-of-itself a reason to adopt a principle.
See this StackOverflow question for more reading on this subject.
To know when to use inheritance vs composition, we first need to understand the pros and cons of each.
The problems with implementation inheritance
Other answers have done a wonderful job at explaining the issues with inheritance, so I'll try to not delve into too many details here. But, here's a brief list:
It can be difficult to follow a logic that weaves between base and sub-class methods.
Carelessly implementing one method in your class by calling another overridable method will cause you to leak implementation details and break encapsulation, as the end-user could override your method and detect when you internally call it. (See "Effective Java" item 18).
The fragile base problem, which simply states that your end-user's code will break if they happen to depend on the leakage of implementation details when you attempt to change them. To make matters worse, most OOP languages allow inheritance by default - API designers who aren't proactively preventing people from inheriting from their public classes need to be extra cautious whenever they refactor their base classes. Unfortunately, the fragile base problem is often misunderstood, causing many to not understand what it takes to maintain a class that anyone can inherit from.
The deadly diamond of death
The problems with composition
It can sometimes be a little verbose.
That's it. I'm serious. This is still a real issue and can sometimes create conflict with the DRY principle, but it's generally not that bad, at least compared to the myriad of pitfalls associated with inheritance.
When should inheritance be used?
Next time you're drawing out your fancy UML diagrams for a project (if you do that), and you're thinking about adding in some inheritance, please adhere to the following advice: don't.
At least, not yet.
Inheritance is sold as a tool to achieve polymorphism, but bundled with it is this powerful code-reuse system, that frankly, most code doesn't need. The problem is, as soon as you publicly expose your inheritance hierarchy, you're locked into this particular style of code-reuse, even if it's overkill to solve your particular problem.
To avoid this, my two cents would be to never expose your base classes publicly.
If you need polymorphism, use an interface.
If you need to allow people to customize the behavior of your class, provide explicit hook-in points via the strategy pattern, it's a more readable way to accomplish this, plus, it's easier to keep this sort of API stable as you're in full control over what behaviors they can and can not change.
If you're trying to follow the open-closed principle by using inheritance to avoid adding a much-needed update to a class, just don't. Update the class. Your codebase will be much cleaner if you actually take ownership of the code you're hired to maintain instead of trying to tack stuff onto the side of it. If you're scared about introducing bugs, then get the existing code under test.
If you need to reuse code, start out by trying to use composition or helper functions.
Finally, if you've decided that there's no other good option, and you must use inheritance to achieve the code-reuse that you need, then you can use it, but, follow these four P.A.I.L. rules of restricted inheritance to keep it sane.
Use inheritance as a private implementation detail. Don't expose your base class publicly, use interfaces for that. This lets you freely add or remove inheritance as you see fit without making a breaking change.
Keep your base class abstract. It makes it easier to divide out the logic that needs to be shared from the logic that doesn't.
Isolate your base and child classes. Don't let your subclass override base class methods (use the strategy pattern for that), and avoid having them expect properties/methods to exist on each other, use other forms of code-sharing to achieve that. Use appropriate language features to force all methods on the base class to be non-overridable ("final" in Java, or non-virtual in C#).
Inheritance is a last resort.
The Isolate rule in particular may sound a little rough to follow, but if you discipline yourself, you'll get some pretty nice benefits. In particular, it gives you the freedom to avoid all of the main nasty pitfalls associated with the inheritance that were mentioned above.
It's much easier to follow the code because it doesn't weave in and out of base/sub classes.
You can not accidentally leak when your methods are internally calling other overridable methods if you never make any of your methods overridable. In other words, you won't accidentally break encapsulation.
The fragile base class problem stems from the ability to depend on accidentally leaked implementation details. Since the base class is now isolated, it will be no more fragile than a class depending on another via composition.
The deadly diamond of death isn't an issue anymore, since there's simply no need to have multiple layers of inheritance. If you have the abstract base classes B and C, which both share a lot of functionality, just move that functionality out of B and C and into a new abstract base class, class D. Anyone who inherited from B should update to inherit from both B and D, and anyone who inherited from C should inherit from C and D. Since your base classes are all private implementation details, it shouldn't be too difficult to figure out who's inheriting from what, to make these changes.
Conclusion
My primary suggestion would be to use your brain on this matter. What's far more important than a list of dos and don'ts about when to use inheritance is an intuitive understanding of inheritance and its associated pros and cons, along with a good understanding of the other tools out there that can be used instead of inheritance (composition isn't the only alternative. For example, the strategy pattern is an amazing tool that's forgotten far too often). Perhaps when you have a good, solid understanding of all of these tools, you'll choose to use inheritance more often than I would recommend, and that's completely fine. At least, you're making an informed decision, and aren't just using inheritance because that's the only way you know how to do it.
Further reading:
An article I wrote on this subject, that dives even deeper and provides examples.
A webpage talking about three different jobs that inheritance does, and how those jobs can be done via other means in the Go language.
A list of reasons why it can be good to declare your class as non-inheritable (e.g. "final" in Java).
The "Effective Java" book by Joshua Bloch, item 18, which discusses composition over inheritance, and some of the dangers of inheritance.
You need to have a look at The Liskov Substitution Principle in Uncle Bob's SOLID principles of class design. :)
To address this question from a different perspective for newer programmers:
Inheritance is often taught early when we learn object-oriented programming, so it's seen as an easy solution to a common problem.
I have three classes that all need some common functionality. So if I
write a base class and have them all inherit from it, then they will
all have that functionality and I'll only need to maintain it in once
place.
It sounds great, but in practice it almost never, ever works, for one of several reasons:
We discover that there are some other functions that we want our classes to have. If the way that we add functionality to classes is through inheritance, we have to decide - do we add it to the existing base class, even though not every class that inherits from it needs that functionality? Do we create another base class? But what about classes that already inherit from the other base class?
We discover that for just one of the classes that inherits from our base class we want the base class to behave a little differently. So now we go back and tinker with our base class, maybe adding some virtual methods, or even worse, some code that says, "If I'm inherited type A, do this, but if I'm inherited type B, do that." That's bad for lots of reasons. One is that every time we change the base class, we're effectively changing every inherited class. So we're really changing class A, B, C, and D because we need a slightly different behavior in class A. As careful as we think we are, we might break one of those classes for reasons that have nothing to do with those classes.
We might know why we decided to make all of these classes inherit from each other, but it might not (probably won't) make sense to someone else who has to maintain our code. We might force them into a difficult choice - do I do something really ugly and messy to make the change I need (see the previous bullet point) or do I just rewrite a bunch of this.
In the end, we tie our code in some difficult knots and get no benefit whatsoever from it except that we get to say, "Cool, I learned about inheritance and now I used it." That's not meant to be condescending because we've all done it. But we all did it because no one told us not to.
As soon as someone explained "favor composition over inheritance" to me, I thought back over every time I tried to share functionality between classes using inheritance and realized that most of the time it didn't really work well.
The antidote is the Single Responsibility Principle. Think of it as a constraint. My class must do one thing. I must be able to give my class a name that somehow describes that one thing it does. (There are exceptions to everything, but absolute rules are sometimes better when we're learning.) It follows that I cannot write a base class called ObjectBaseThatContainsVariousFunctionsNeededByDifferentClasses. Whatever distinct functionality I need must be in its own class, and then other classes that need that functionality can depend on that class, not inherit from it.
At the risk of oversimplifying, that's composition - composing multiple classes to work together. And once we form that habit we find that it's much more flexible, maintainable, and testable than using inheritance.
When you want to "copy"/Expose the base class' API, you use inheritance. When you only want to "copy" functionality, use delegation.
One example of this: You want to create a Stack out of a List. Stack only has pop, push and peek. You shouldn't use inheritance given that you don't want push_back, push_front, removeAt, et al.-kind of functionality in a Stack.
These two ways can live together just fine and actually support each other.
Composition is just playing it modular: you create interface similar to the parent class, create new object and delegate calls to it. If these objects need not to know of each other, it's quite safe and easy to use composition. There are so many possibilites here.
However, if the parent class for some reason needs to access functions provided by the "child class" for inexperienced programmer it may look like it's a great place to use inheritance. The parent class can just call it's own abstract "foo()" which is overwritten by the subclass and then it can give the value to the abstract base.
It looks like a nice idea, but in many cases it's better just give the class an object which implements the foo() (or even set the value provided the foo() manually) than to inherit the new class from some base class which requires the function foo() to be specified.
Why?
Because inheritance is a poor way of moving information.
The composition has a real edge here: the relationship can be reversed: the "parent class" or "abstract worker" can aggregate any specific "child" objects implementing certain interface + any child can be set inside any other type of parent, which accepts it's type. And there can be any number of objects, for example MergeSort or QuickSort could sort any list of objects implementing an abstract Compare -interface. Or to put it another way: any group of objects which implement "foo()" and other group of objects which can make use of objects having "foo()" can play together.
I can think of three real reasons for using inheritance:
You have many classes with same interface and you want to save time writing them
You have to use same Base Class for each object
You need to modify the private variables, which can not be public in any case
If these are true, then it is probably necessary to use inheritance.
There is nothing bad in using reason 1, it is very good thing to have a solid interface on your objects. This can be done using composition or with inheritance, no problem - if this interface is simple and does not change. Usually inheritance is quite effective here.
If the reason is number 2 it gets a bit tricky. Do you really only need to use the same base class? In general, just using the same base class is not good enough, but it may be a requirement of your framework, a design consideration which can not be avoided.
However, if you want to use the private variables, the case 3, then you may be in trouble. If you consider global variables unsafe, then you should consider using inheritance to get access to private variables also unsafe. Mind you, global variables are not all THAT bad - databases are essentially big set of global variables. But if you can handle it, then it's quite fine.
Aside from is a/has a considerations, one must also consider the "depth" of inheritance your object has to go through. Anything beyond five or six levels of inheritance deep might cause unexpected casting and boxing/unboxing problems, and in those cases it might be wise to compose your object instead.
When you have an is-a relation between two classes (example dog is a canine), you go for inheritance.
On the other hand when you have has-a or some adjective relationship between two classes (student has courses) or (teacher studies courses), you chose composition.
A simple way to make sense of this would be that inheritance should be used when you need an object of your class to have the same interface as its parent class, so that it can thereby be treated as an object of the parent class (upcasting). Moreover, function calls on a derived class object would remain the same everywhere in code, but the specific method to call would be determined at runtime (i.e. the low-level implementation differs, the high-level interface remains the same).
Composition should be used when you do not need the new class to have the same interface, i.e. you wish to conceal certain aspects of the class' implementation which the user of that class need not know about. So composition is more in the way of supporting encapsulation (i.e. concealing the implementation) while inheritance is meant to support abstraction (i.e. providing a simplified representation of something, in this case the same interface for a range of types with different internals).
Subtyping is appropriate and more powerful where the invariants can be enumerated, else use function composition for extensibility.
I agree with #Pavel, when he says, there are places for composition and there are places for inheritance.
I think inheritance should be used if your answer is an affirmative to any of these questions.
Is your class part of a structure that benefits from polymorphism ? For example, if you had a Shape class, which declares a method called draw(), then we clearly need Circle and Square classes to be subclasses of Shape, so that their client classes would depend on Shape and not on specific subclasses.
Does your class need to re-use any high level interactions defined in another class ? The template method design pattern would be impossible to implement without inheritance. I believe all extensible frameworks use this pattern.
However, if your intention is purely that of code re-use, then composition most likely is a better design choice.
Inheritance is a very powerfull machanism for code reuse. But needs to be used properly. I would say that inheritance is used correctly if the subclass is also a subtype of the parent class. As mentioned above, the Liskov Substitution Principle is the key point here.
Subclass is not the same as subtype. You might create subclasses that are not subtypes (and this is when you should use composition). To understand what a subtype is, lets start giving an explanation of what a type is.
When we say that the number 5 is of type integer, we are stating that 5 belongs to a set of possible values (as an example, see the possible values for the Java primitive types). We are also stating that there is a valid set of methods I can perform on the value like addition and subtraction. And finally we are stating that there are a set of properties that are always satisfied, for example, if I add the values 3 and 5, I will get 8 as a result.
To give another example, think about the abstract data types, Set of integers and List of integers, the values they can hold are restricted to integers. They both support a set of methods, like add(newValue) and size(). And they both have different properties (class invariant), Sets does not allow duplicates while List does allow duplicates (of course there are other properties that they both satisfy).
Subtype is also a type, which has a relation to another type, called parent type (or supertype). The subtype must satisfy the features (values, methods and properties) of the parent type. The relation means that in any context where the supertype is expected, it can be substitutable by a subtype, without affecting the behaviour of the execution. Let’s go to see some code to exemplify what I’m saying. Suppose I write a List of integers (in some sort of pseudo language):
class List {
data = new Array();
Integer size() {
return data.length;
}
add(Integer anInteger) {
data[data.length] = anInteger;
}
}
Then, I write the Set of integers as a subclass of the List of integers:
class Set, inheriting from: List {
add(Integer anInteger) {
if (data.notContains(anInteger)) {
super.add(anInteger);
}
}
}
Our Set of integers class is a subclass of List of Integers, but is not a subtype, due to it is not satisfying all the features of the List class. The values, and the signature of the methods are satisfied but the properties are not. The behaviour of the add(Integer) method has been clearly changed, not preserving the properties of the parent type. Think from the point of view of the client of your classes. They might receive a Set of integers where a List of integers is expected. The client might want to add a value and get that value added to the List even if that value already exist in the List. But her wont get that behaviour if the value exists. A big suprise for her!
This is a classic example of an improper use of inheritance. Use composition in this case.
(a fragment from: use inheritance properly).
Even though Composition is preferred, I would like to highlight pros of Inheritance and cons of Composition.
Pros of Inheritance:
It establishes a logical "IS A" relation. If Car and Truck are two types of Vehicle ( base class), child class IS A base class.
i.e.
Car is a Vehicle
Truck is a Vehicle
With inheritance, you can define/modify/extend a capability
Base class provides no implementation and sub-class has to override complete method (abstract) => You can implement a contract
Base class provides default implementation and sub-class can change the behaviour => You can re-define contract
Sub-class adds extension to base class implementation by calling super.methodName() as first statement => You can extend a contract
Base class defines structure of the algorithm and sub-class will override a part of algorithm => You can implement Template_method without change in base class skeleton
Cons of Composition:
In inheritance, subclass can directly invoke base class method even though it's not implementing base class method because of IS A relation. If you use composition, you have to add methods in container class to expose contained class API
e.g. If Car contains Vehicle and if you have to get price of the Car, which has been defined in Vehicle, your code will be like this
class Vehicle{
protected double getPrice(){
// return price
}
}
class Car{
Vehicle vehicle;
protected double getPrice(){
return vehicle.getPrice();
}
}
A rule of thumb I have heard is inheritance should be used when its a "is-a" relationship and composition when its a "has-a". Even with that I feel that you should always lean towards composition because it eliminates a lot of complexity.
As many people told, I will first start with the check - whether there exists an "is-a" relationship. If it exists I usually check the following:
Whether the base class can be instantiated. That is, whether the base class can be non-abstract. If it can be non-abstract I usually prefer composition
E.g 1. Accountant is an Employee. But I will not use inheritance because a Employee object can be instantiated.
E.g 2. Book is a SellingItem. A SellingItem cannot be instantiated - it is abstract concept. Hence I will use inheritacne. The SellingItem is an abstract base class (or interface in C#)
What do you think about this approach?
Also, I support #anon answer in Why use inheritance at all?
The main reason for using inheritance is not as a form of composition - it is so you can get polymorphic behaviour. If you don't need polymorphism, you probably should not be using inheritance.
#MatthieuM. says in https://softwareengineering.stackexchange.com/questions/12439/code-smell-inheritance-abuse/12448#comment303759_12448
The issue with inheritance is that it can be used for two orthogonal purposes:
interface (for polymorphism)
implementation (for code reuse)
REFERENCE
Which class design is better?
Inheritance vs. Aggregation
Composition v/s Inheritance is a wide subject. There is no real answer for what is better as I think it all depends on the design of the system.
Generally type of relationship between object provide better information to choose one of them.
If relation type is "IS-A" relation then Inheritance is better approach.
otherwise relation type is "HAS-A" relation then composition will better approach.
Its totally depend on entity relationship.
Related
Can inheritance exist without Polymorphism or is it an imminent side effect of it? It might be a fallacious question, but it will help me understand the relation between both.
Can inheritance exist without Polymorphism?
They are related concepts, but yes, it is possible to have one without the other. In Java if you subclass a parent class you also get a subtype, but in other languages this might not be the case implicitly. In some languages inheritance can be just a form of code reuse.
For example, in C++ you don't get polymorphism if you don't mark your methods virtual. See here for an explanation: Why do we need Virtual Functions in C++?. In Java on the other hand, all public methods are implicitly virtual.
This is a vast subject that has many flavors in many languages. As a TL;DR (and a gross gross gross simplification) you can think inheritance is a form of code reuse while polymorphism is the ability to substitute an object of a type with an object of a subtype and your program continues to work correctly. In Java these two things overlap and you get one from the other but not all languages are like that.
And even if you get polymorphism out of the box from inheritance it is still possible to "break polymorphism" by not respecting the Liskov substitution principle. Like I said... a vast subject.
If you look closely they are actually related to each other, because its Inheritance which makes Polymorphism possible, without any relationship between two class, it's not possible to write polymorphic code, which can take advantage of runtime binding of different objects.
You cannot use Polymorphism on something which is not inherited by Child class e.g. private method can't be overridden in Java.
Like in real world, Inheritance is used to define the relationship between two classes. It's similar to Father-Son relationship. In object oriented programming, we have a Parent class (also known as the super class) and a Child class (also known as the subclass). Similar to the real world, Child inherits Parents qualities, e.g. it's attribute, methods and code. Inheritance is actually meant for code-reuse. A child can reuse all the codes written in Parent class, and only write code for behavior which is different than the parent. Though it’s possible to restrict something to parent itself by using the private and final keyword in Java.On the other hand, Polymorphism is an ability of Object to behave in multiple form.
Read more: http://java67.blogspot.com/2014/04/difference-between-polymorphism-and-Inheritance-java-oops.html#ixzz4A201Ln9T
And from the following topic
Inheritance is when a 'class' derives from an existing 'class'. So if you have a Person class, then you have a Student class that extends Person, Student inherits all the things that Person has. There are some details around the access modifiers you put on the fields/methods in Person, but that's the basic idea. For example, if you have a private field on Person, Student won't see it because its private, and private fields are not visible to subclasses.
Polymorphism deals with how the program decides which methods it
should use, depending on what type of thing it has. If you have a
Person, which has a read method, and you have a Student which extends
Person, which has its own implementation of read, which method gets
called is determined for you by the runtime, depending if you have a
Person or a Student. It gets a bit tricky, but if you do something
like
Person p = new Student();
p.read();
the read method on Student gets called. Thats the polymorphism in action. You can do that assignment because a Student is a Person, but the runtime is smart enough to know that the actual type of p is Student.
i know actual purpose of superclass and subclass (inheritance), they are meant for extending the behaviors of parent and multiple implementations of parent behavior. but coming to split the code. we can create another class and put some code on it and can call from main class. alternatively we can write some code on super class and another some in child class (only for the purpose of split the code), but is that a good practice.
like below?
class A{
void methA(){
....
....
}
void methB(){
......
...
}
}
class B extends A{
void methC(){
methA();
methB();
.
}
}
if its not good way,what is the way to fragment the code if its more that 1000 lines (more readable code)?
As always it is a matter of object oriented design and hence, depends on the concrete situation. But in general you may go with the following principles:
use delegation in favor of inheritance, because inheritance restricts all other classes which like to use that behavior to one super class.
try to keep your code DRY (Don't repeat yourself). If you define the same behavior in more then one place, you have to change those many places in case the requirements demand changing this behavior.
if you inherit from another class, try to keep the visibility to the package if possible. Otherwise you may widen the interface of a package only for code-reuse and not for abstraction.
ask yourself when you inherit from another class, if the substitution principle applies. If not reconsider not to use inheritance (sometimes you still want to inherit anyways)
My usual way to do this:
do the things simple as possible.
When you get the feel an higher level of architecture is required then do it.
In time you will know when to use this abstraction but don't make your live harder for now reason while learning.
No it is not good practice. Inheritance is used where you need special class of the base class. For example You have Car class its special classes will be BMW , Honda, Tyota. or you have Human class its specail classes are Male and Female. Or Shape its special classes are Circle , Rectangle , Square Triangle. So when your need or requirement is Specail class of base class then you may go for inheritance not just to split the code in two classes.
No inheritance is not good for this scenario.
because split code i assume , will have different logic which is not relevant between 2 classes.
so inheritance will inherit the behaviour of parent class and consumes memory for parent attributes and methods.
so use it only if child also requires parent behaviour or else dont go for it.
No it isn't. Best practice is to adhere to the principle of high cohesion, low coupling. This means that methods that "belong" together, stay together and that a class should depend on as few other classes as possible. By using inheritance to "split" code you are intentionally violating this principle for no apparent reason.
If it's because your class has become unmanageable, it's probably because it has too much responsibility, so you should look at a way to split it into two separate classes by responsibility, as explained by the Single Responsibility Principle.
Just in order to split code it's not needed B to extend A, they can be just two separate classes without parent-child relation between them. And B can call A. What you suggest is not really a good practice. For this approach to make sense, there must be at least one more class C which extends A and possibly changes A's behavior. If that's not the case, I would just implement one of these two approaches:
1) put all the methods in A;
2) have two unrelated classes A and B (that is
class B does not extend A), and have B call A
(that is use delegation and not inheritance).
This question already has answers here:
Interface vs Abstract Class (general OO)
(36 answers)
Closed 9 years ago.
Lately i decided to take a look at Java so i am still pretty new to it and also to the approach of OO programming, so i wanted to get some things straight before learning more, (i guess it's never to soon to start with good practices).
I am programming a little 2D game for now but i think my question applies to any non trivial project. For the simplicity I'll provide examples from my game.
I have different kinds of zombies, but they all have the same attributes (x, y, health, attack etc) so i wrote an interface Zombie which i implement by WalkingZombie, RunningZombie TeleportingZombie etc. Is this the best thing to do? Am i better of with an abstract class? Or with a super class? (I am not planning to partially implement functions - therefor my choice for an interface instead of an abstract class)
I have one class describing the main character (Survivor) and since it is pretty big i wanted to write an interface with the different functions, so that i can easily see and share the structure of it. Is it good practice? Or is it simply a waste of space and time?
I hope this question will not be rated as subjective because i thought that experienced programmers won't disagree about this kind of topic since the use of interfaces / super classes / abstract classes follows logical rules and is thereby not simply a personal choice.
You can think of an interface as a "contract". You are defining a set of methods that classes which implement this interface must implement.
An abstract class, on the other hand, is used when you have some code that could be common to all the child classes you want to implement. So you might have an abstract class called Shape that has some common code, and in your derived classes (Circle, Square, etc.) you could have the code that is specific to those shapes (getArea would be an example). But something like color might be common to all shapes, so you could put a getColor method in your Shape abstract class.
And you can combine the two ideas. You can have abstract classes which implement interfaces, and this gives you the best of both worlds.
These concepts are used over and over again in OO, so it's important to understand them. You seem to be well on your way :).
So if your zombie class has some common behavior that applies to all types of zombies, it sounds like a good candidate to be an abstract class. You could also consider creating an interface (maybe a GameCharacter interface) if you have other characters in your game (maybe UndeadMice or something :)). Then your Zombie abstract class and UndeadMouse abstract class would implement the GameCharacter interface.
When in doubt, I choose to follow the GOF paradigm.
Encapsulate what varies: - Define unique behavior in its own class. To refer the above example, implement behaviors for walking, running and teleportation in its separate class. This way, polymorphic behavior is implemented.
Conversely, **Aggregate what is common** - Use Abstract classes to define common behavior in polymorphic associations. I use these principles when designing relationships between objects.
Yes, I think you're heading down the right track with interfaces over abstract classes.
Any concrete Zombie you might want to make could possess any combination of the Walking, Running or Teleporting features you care to implement.
I think modern programming theory discourages inheritance as much as possible, because it inhibits reusability and flexibility in the long-run. Rather, use interfaces and composition to achieve flexibility without 'tight coupling'.
One methodology to re-use code without inheritance, you could apply the 'Favour composition over inheritance' paradigm.
I like to think Josh Bloch's 'Effective Java' (2nd edition) can be taken as "current thinking" ...
http://books.google.com/books?id=ZZOiqZQIbRMC&pg=RA1-PA71&lpg=RA1-PA71&dq=%22Bloch%22+%22Effective+java:+programming+language+guide%22+&hl=de&sig=RxlDlRBWUvNAzsAFzqOcftrYI5E#v=onepage&q&f=false
So, you could implement all your behaviours as independent classes, and then give each zombie implementation its own combination of behaviours, through implementation & composition..
Hope that makes sense & helps ...
I would have written Zombie as an abstract class to avoid the redefinition of the fields x, y, health, etc...
For the Survivor class, I would simply have declare public the functions to be used externally. I declare public functions at the top of the class. Declaring an interface when there is only one class implementing it uselessly adds a file to maintain. Avoid it.
Nobody agrees about the use of interfaces over super/abstract classes ;)
The main reason to use interfaces and super/abstract classes is to enable polymorphism. In your case for instance, you have stuff moving on the screen (the player and the zombies and so on). Why not make them all move on the screen using the same method? Maybe inherit everything that's going to move on the screen from an object called "Movable" or something like that.
And if you're really into this stuff you might want to look at mixins as well. It's not something that Java supports directly but there are libraries built for it.
I have different kinds of zombies, but they all have the same attributes (x, y, health,
attack etc) so i wrote an interface Zombie which i implement by WalkingZombie,
RunningZombie TeleportingZombie etc. Is this the best thing to do? Am i better of with an
abstract class? Or with a super class?
an abstract class will be a super class for your zombies. an interface would also in some sense be a super class (super interface?) for your zombies.
the common properties suggest at least an abstract base class for common properties.
(I am not planning to partially implement functions - therefor my choice for an interface
instead of an abstract class)
not sure what you mean by this.
if you had different kinds of monsters (goblins, orcs, etc.) you might find behaviour common to these that would want to belong to different base classes. this would suggest an interface.
i would start with an abstract base class and see what the code tells you as you write it.
I have one class describing the main character (Survivor) and since it is pretty big i
wanted to write an interface with the different functions, so that i can easily see and
share the structure of it. Is it good practice? Or is it simply a waste of space and
time?
your survivor is what is called a player-character (as opposed to a non-player character - someone in a game who will normally not attack your survivor).
most games treat all of these character types as some kind of monster since they will all have many properties in common (health. magic, treasures, weapons, etc.)
so perhaps that's more of an argument for an interface.
see:
Using inheritance and polymorphism to solve a common game problem
Class diagram examples for RPG (Role Playing Game)
designing class hierarchy for typical characters in role playing game
I don't think that in your case your interface and class structure aligns well with the reality. In fact, I believe (correct me if I'm wrong) that each zombie can be walking, running, teleporting etc. depending on where it is.
Therefore, you should have a zombie class or interface and have actions which modify the zombie's state. The action would probably be an interface or an abstract class, so that you can apply any action to a zombie without knowing what the exact action does (e.g. action.perform(zobie)).
If you have different kinds of zombies, such as three-legged-zombie and one-armed zombies, you might want to implement different classes which handle the zombie stuff, such as displaying themselfes or validating state changes (e.g. a special kind of zombie may not accept to be teleported).
in terms of your Zombie example, the interface will do well, unless you have common code that you want all zombies to do.
Say you have a Move method, that makes walkingzombies walk, runningzombies run, etc. However, if you want "Move" to make any kind of zombie do something common, then the interface is going to force you to duplicate code, as you cant put a body in an interface.
My opinion is you better use abstract class called Creature as a super class for all type of, well, creatures, and extend it to Zombie for all type of zombies.
And you will also need an interface.. to define what are the things that a creature can do..
like maybe, walk, or claw, or scream...
the reason why you need an abstract class is to disable the instantiation of Creature, you wouldn't want to have a creature without knowing what creature it is, right?
Well I was going to ask what the difference is but it's been answered before. But now I'm asking why did they make these differences? (I'm speaking about java here, I don't know if the same applies to other languages)
The two things seem very similar. Abstract classes can define a method body whilst interfaces can't, but multiple interfaces can be inherited. So why didn't they (by 'they' I mean Sun when they wrote Java) make one thing where you can write a method body and this type can be inherited more than once by a class.
Is there some advantage in not being able to write a method body, or extend multiple times that I'm not seeing?
Because allowing classes to inherit multiple implementations for the same method signature leads to the obvious question, which one should be used at runtime.
Java avoids this by supporting multiple inheritance only for interfaces. The signatures declared in each interface can be combined much more easily (Java basically uses the union of all methods)
Multiple inheritance in C++ leads to semantic ambiguities like the diamond inheritance problem. MI is quite powerful, but has complex consequences.
Making interfaces a special case also raises the visibility of the concept as a means of information hiding and reducing program complexity. In C++, defining pure abstract bases is a sign of a mature programmer. In Java, you encounter them at a much earlier stage in the evolution of a programmer.
Multiple inheritance is more difficult to implement in a language (compiler really) as it can lead to certain issues. These issues have been discussed here before: What is the exact problem with multiple inheritance.
I've always assumed this was a compromise in Java. Interfaces allow a class to fulfill multiple contracts without the headache of multiple inheritance.
Consider this example:
public abstract class Engine
{
public abstract void switchPowerOn();
public abstract void sprinkleSomeFuel();
public abstract void ignite();
public final void start()
{
switchPowerOn();
sprinkleSomeFuel();
ignite();
}
}
Abstract class can help you with having solid base methods which can or cannot be overriden, but in these methods it uses abstract methos to provide you an opportunity to do your specific thing. In my example different engines have different implementations of how they switch power on, sprinkling some fuel for the ignition, and doing the ignition, however the starting sequence of the engine stays always the same.
That pattern is called "Form Template Method" and is quite frankly the only sensible usage of abstract classes in Java for me.
Making them one thing is the route that the Scala guys took with Traits which is an interface that can have methods and supports multiple inheritance.
I think interfaces, for me, are clean in that they only specify requirements (design by contract) whereas abstract classes define common behaviour (implementation), so a different tool for a different job? Interfaces probably allow more efficient code generation during compile time as well?
The other approach you are describing is the approach used by C++ (mixins for example). The issues related to such "multiple inheritance" are quite complex, and has several critics in C++.
Inheritance means you inherit the nature (meaning) and responsibility (behaviour) of the parent class, while interface implementation means you fulfill a contract (e.g. Serializable), which may have nothing to do with the core nature or responsibility of the class.
Abstract class let you define a nature that you want to be generic and not directly instanciable, because it must be specialized. You know how to perform some high-level tasks (e.g. make a decision according to some parameters), but you don't know the details for some lower-level actions (e.g. compute some intermediary parameters), because it depends on implementation choices. An alternative for solving this problem is the Strategy design pattern. It is more flexible, allowing run-time strategy switching and Null behaviour, yet it is more complex (and runtime swtiching is not always necessary). Moreover, you might lose some meaning & typing facilities (polymorphism & type-checking becomes a bit harder because the Strategy is a component, not the object itself).
Abstract class = is-a, Strategy = has-a
Edit: as for multiple inheritance, see Pontus Gagge's answer.
I will choose Java as an example, most people know it, though every other OO language was working as well.
Java, like many other languages, has interface inheritance and implementation inheritance. E.g. a Java class can inherit from another one and every method that has an implementation there (assuming the parent is not abstract) is inherited, too. That means the interface is inherited and the implementation for this method as well. I can overwrite it, but I don't have to. If I don't overwrite it, I have inherited the implementation.
However, my class can also "inherit" (not in Java terms) just an interface, without implementation. Actually interfaces are really named that way in Java, they provide interface inheritance, but without inheriting any implementation, since all methods of an interface have no implementation.
Now there was this article, saying it's better to inherit interfaces than implementations, you may like to read it (at least the first half of the first page), it's pretty interesting. It avoids issues like the fragile base class problem. So far this makes all a lot of sense and many other things said in the article make a lot of sense to me.
What bugs me about this, is that implementation inheritance means code reuse, one of the most important properties of OO languages. Now if Java had no classes (like James Gosling, the godfather of Java has wished according to this article), it solves all problems of implementation inheritance, but how would you make code reuse possible then?
E.g. if I have a class Car and Car has a method move(), which makes the Car move. Now I can sub-class Car for different type of cars, that are all cars, but are all specialized versions of Car. Some may move in a different way, these need to overwrite move() anyway, but most would simply keep the inherited move, as they move alike just like the abstract parent Car. Now assume for a second that there are only interfaces in Java, only interfaces may inherit from each other, a class may implement interfaces, but all classes are always final, so no class can inherit from any other class.
How would you avoid that when you have an Interface Car and hundred Car classes, that you need to implement an identical move() method for each of them? What concepts for code reuse other than implementation inheritance exist in the the OO world?
Some languages have Mixins. Are Mixins the answer to my question? I read about them, but I cannot really imagine how Mixins would work in a Java world and if they can really solve the problem here.
Another idea was that there is a class that only implements the Car interface, let's call it AbstractCar, and implements the move() method. Now other cars implement the Car interface as well, internally they create an instance of AbstractCar and they implement their own move() method by calling move() on their internal abstract Car. But wouldn't this be wasting resources for nothing (a method calling just another method - okay, JIT could inline the code, but still) and using extra memory for keeping internal objects, you wouldn't even need with implementation inheritance? (after all every object needs more memory than just the sum of the encapsulated data) Also isn't it awkward for a programmer to write dummy methods like
public void move() {
abstractCarObject.move();
}
?
Anyone can imagine a better idea how to avoid implementation inheritance and still be able to re-use code in an easy fashion?
Short answer: Yes it is possible. But you have to do it on purpose and no by chance ( using final, abstract and design with inheritance in mind, etc. )
Long answer:
Well, inheritance is not actually for "code re-use", it is for class "specialization", I think this is a misinterpretation.
For instance is it a very bad idea to create a Stack from a Vector, just because they are alike. Or properties from HashTable just because they store values. See [Effective].
The "code reuse" was more a "business view" of the OO characteristics, meaning that you objects were easily distributable among nodes; and were portable and didn't not have the problems of previous programming languages generation. This has been proved half rigth. We now have libraries that can be easily distributed; for instance in java the jar files can be used in any project saving thousands of hours of development. OO still has some problems with portability and things like that, that is the reason now WebServices are so popular ( as before it was CORBA ) but that's another thread.
This is one aspect of "code reuse". The other is effectively, the one that has to do with programming. But in this case is not just to "save" lines of code and creating fragile monsters, but designing with inheritance in mind. This is the item 17 in the book previously mentioned; Item 17: Design and document for inheritance or else prohibit it. See [Effective]
Of course you may have a Car class and tons of subclasses. And yes, the approach you mention about Car interface, AbstractCar and CarImplementation is a correct way to go.
You define the "contract" the Car should adhere and say these are the methods I would expect to have when talking about cars. The abstract car that has the base functionality that every car but leaving and documenting the methods the subclasses are responsible to handle. In java you do this by marking the method as abstract.
When you proceed this way, there is not a problem with the "fragile" class ( or at least the designer is conscious or the threat ) and the subclasses do complete only those parts the designer allow them.
Inheritance is more to "specialize" the classes, in the same fashion a Truck is an specialized version of Car, and MosterTruck an specialized version of Truck.
It does not make sanse to create a "ComputerMouse" subclase from a Car just because it has a Wheel ( scroll wheel ) like a car, it moves, and has a wheel below just to save lines of code. It belongs to a different domain, and it will be used for other purposes.
The way to prevent "implementation" inheritance is in the programming language since the beginning, you should use the final keyword on the class declaration and this way you are prohibiting subclasses.
Subclassing is not evil if it's done on purpose. If it's done uncarefully it may become a nightmare. I would say that you should start as private and "final" as possible and if needed make things more public and extend-able. This is also widely explained in the presentation"How to design good API's and why it matters" See [Good API]
Keep reading articles and with time and practice ( and a lot of patience ) this thing will come clearer. Although sometime you just need to do the work and copy/paste some code :P . This is ok, as long you try to do it well first.
Here are the references both from Joshua Bloch ( formerly working in Sun at the core of java now working for Google )
[Effective]
Effective Java. Definitely the best java book a non beginner should learn, understand and practice. A must have.
Effective Java
[Good API]Presentation that talks on API's design, reusability and related topics.
It is a little lengthy but it worth every minute.
How To Design A Good API and Why it Matters
Regards.
Update: Take a look at minute 42 of the video link I sent you. It talks about this topic:
"When you have two classes in a public API and you think to make one a subclass of another, like Foo is a subclass of Bar, ask your self , is Every Foo a Bar?... "
And in the minute previous it talks about "code reuse" while talking about TimeTask.
The problem with most example against inheritance are examples where the person is using inheritance incorrectly, not a failure of inheritance to correctly abstract.
In the article you posted a link to, the author shows the "brokenness" of inheritance using Stack and ArrayList. The example is flawed because a Stack is not an ArrayList and therefore inheritance should not be used. The example is as flawed as String extending Character, or PointXY extending Number.
Before you extend class, you should always perform the "is_a" test. Since you can't say Every Stack is an ArrayList without being wrong in some way, then you should not inheirit.
The contract for Stack is different than the contract for ArrayList (or List) and stack should not be inheriting methods that is does not care about (like get(int i) and add()). In fact Stack should be an interface with methods such as:
interface Stack<T> {
public void push(T object);
public T pop();
public void clear();
public int size();
}
A class like ArrayListStack might implement the Stack interface, and in that case use composition (having an internal ArrayList) and not inheritance.
Inheritance is not bad, bad inheritance is bad.
You could also use composition and the strategy pattern.link text
public class Car
{
private ICar _car;
public void Move() {
_car.Move();
}
}
This is far more flexible than using inheritance based behaviour as it allows you to change at runtime, by substituting new Car types as required.
You can use composition. In your example, a Car object might contain another object called Drivetrain. The car's move() method could simply call the drive() method of it's drivetrain. The Drivetrain class could, in turn, contain objects like Engine, Transmission, Wheels, etc. If you structured your class hierarchy this way, you could easily create cars which move in different ways by composing them of different combinations of the simpler parts (i.e. reuse code).
To make mixins/composition easier, take a look at my Annotations and Annotation Processor:
http://code.google.com/p/javadude/wiki/Annotations
In particular, the mixins example:
http://code.google.com/p/javadude/wiki/AnnotationsMixinExample
Note that it doesn't currently work if the interfaces/types being delegated to have parameterized methods (or parameterized types on the methods). I'm working on that...
It's funny to answer my own question, but here's something I found that is pretty interesting: Sather.
It's a programming language with no implementation inheritance at all! It knows interfaces (called abstract classes with no implementation or encapsulated data), and interfaces can inherit of each other (actually they even support multiple inheritance!), but a class can only implement interfaces (abstract classes, as many as it likes), it can't inherit from another class. It can however "include" another class. This is rather a delegate concept. Included classes must be instantiated in the constructor of your class and are destroyed when your class is destroyed. Unless you overwrite the methods they have, your class inherits their interface as well, but not their code. Instead methods are created that just forward calls to your method to the equally named method of the included object. The difference between included objects and just encapsulated objects is that you don't have to create the delegation forwards yourself and they don't exist as independent objects that you can pass around, they are part of your object and live and die together with your object (or more technically spoken: The memory for your object and all included ones is created with a single alloc call, same memory block, you just need to init them in your constructor call, while when using real delegates, each of these objects causes an own alloc call, has an own memory block, and lives completely independently of your object).
The language is not so beautiful, but I love the idea behind it :-)
Inheritance is not necessary for an object oriented language.
Consider Javascript, which is even more object-oriented than Java, arguably. There are no classes, just objects. Code is reused by adding existing methods to an object. A Javascript object is essentially a map of names to functions (and data), where the initial contents of the map is established by a prototype, and new entries can be added to a given instance on the fly.
You should read Design Patterns. You will find that Interfaces are critical to many types of useful Design Patterns. For example abstracting different types of network protocols will have the same interface (to the software calling it) but little code reuse because of different behaviors of each type of protocol.
For some algorithms are eye opening in showing how to put together the myriad elements of a programming to do some useful task. Design Patterns do the same for objects.Shows you how to combine objects in a way to perform a useful task.
Design Patterns by the Gang of Four